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Olympic Games Track & Field History: Men’s 100 Meter-Final, 1896-2012

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The 100 meters is one of the 12 original track and field events introduced at the inaugural Olympic Games in 1896. Since then, athletes representing Canada, Great Britain, Germany, Jamaica, South Africa, Soviet Union, Trinidad & Tobago, and the United States have won the event. Americans have won the Olympic 100 meter title seventeen 17 times, the most by any nation. Americans Archie Hahn and Carl Lewis and Jamaican Usain Bolt are the only athletes who have won the event more than once. Hahn won the Olympic title in 1904 and 1906, Lewis in 1984 and 1988, and Bolt in 2008 and 2012. While Hahn and Bolt won both times outright, Lewis won his second title as a result of the disqualification of Ben Johnson (Canada) for a positive drug test after the race.

Nine athletes have won more than 1 medal in the history of the event. Archie Hahn (United States), Carl Lewis (United States), and Usain Bolt (Jamaica) lead the individual medal count with 2 gold medals each, followed by Linford Christie (Great Britain) with 2 (1 gold, 1 silver), Maurice Greene (United States) with 2 (1 gold, 1 bronze), Valeriy Borzov (Soviet Union) with 2 (1 gold, 1 bronze), Ralph Metcalfe (United States) with 2 silver, Ato Boldon (Trinidad & Tobago) with 2 (1 silver, 1 bronze), and Lennox Miller (Jamaica) with 2 (1 silver, 1 bronze).

Seventeen (17) nations have won medals in the Olympic 100 meter-final. The United States leads the medal count with 40 (17 gold, 14 silver, 9 bronze), followed by Great Britain with 8 (3 gold, 2 silver, 2 bronze), Jamaica with 7 (2 gold, 4 silver, 1 bronze), Canada with 5 (2 gold, 3 bronze), Trinidad & Tobago with 4 (1 gold, 2 silver,1 bronze), Germany with 4 (1 gold, 1 silver, 2 bronze), Australia with 3 bronze, the Soviet Union with 2 (1 gold, 1 bronze), Cuba with 2 silver, Namibia with 2 silver, South Africa with 1 gold, Portugal with 1 silver, and Barbados, Bulgaria, Netherlands, New Zealand, and Panama with 1 bronze medal.

Thirty-one (31) nations have scored points for placing in the Olympic 100 meter-final. The United States leads scoring with 454 points, followed by Great Britain (86), then Jamaica (83), Canada (49), Germany (42), Trinidad & Tobago (38), Soviet Union (33), Cuba (30), South Africa (23), Australia (21), Namibia (16), Brazil (12), Panama (10), Poland (9), France (9), Netherlands (9), Portugal (8), Bulgaria (7), Nigeria (7), New Zealand (6), Sweden (6), Netherlands Antilles (5), St. Kitts & Nevis (5), Greece (4), Hungary (3), Federal Republic of Germany (3), Japan (3), German Democratic Republic (2), Bahamas (1), and Madagascar (1).

(Points for Place: 1st=10 points; 2nd=8 points; 3rd=6 points; 4th=5 points; 5th=4 points; 6th=3 points; 7th=2 points; 8th=1 point)

From 1956 to 1964, both the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) competed as a single team. From 1968 to 1988, they competed separately, reuniting as a single German team in 1992, after German reunification in 1991.

Following the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, the former Soviet Socialist Republics, expect for Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, competed as the Commonwealth of Independent States, or the “Unified Team” in 1992.

Olympic and world records noted are the records immediately before the final, including marks established in the qualifying rounds.

1896 Athens (April 6)

World Record: 10.8 Luther Cary (United States) July 4, 1891; Cecil Lee (Great Britain) September 25, 1892; Etienne De Re (Belgium) August 4, 1893; L. Atcherley (Great Britain) April 13, 1895; Harry Beaton (Great Britain) August 28, 1985

Olympic Record: 12.2 Frank Lane (United States) April 6, 1896; 12.2 Thomas Curtis (United States) April 6, 1896

1, Thomas Burke (United States) 12.0

2, Fritz Hofmann (Germany) 12.2

3, Alajos Szokolyi (Hungary) 12.6

3, Frank Lane (United States) 12.6

5, Alexandros Chalkokondilis (Greece) 12.6


1900 Paris (July 14)

World Record: 10.8 Luther Cary (United States July 4, 1891; Cecil Lee (Great Britain) September 25, 1892; Etienne De Re (Belgium) August 4, 1893; L. Atcherley (Great Britain) April 13, 1895; Harry Beaton (Great Britain) August 28, 1985; Harald Andersen-Arbin (Sweden) August 9, 1896; Issac Westergren (Sweden) September 11, 1898; Issac Westergren (Sweden) September 10, 1899; Frank Jarvis (United States) July 14, 1900; John Walter Tewksbury (United States) July 14, 1900

Olympic Record: 10.8 Frank Jarvis (United States) July 14, 1900; John Walter Tewksbury (United States) July 14, 1900

1, Frank Jarvis (United States) 11.0

2, John Walter Tewksbury (United States) 11.1

3, Stanley Rowley (Australia) 11.2

DNF Arthur Duffey (United States) N/T

1904 St. Louis (September 3)

World Record: 10.8 Luther Cary (United States July 4, 1891; Cecil Lee (Great Britain) September 25, 1892; Etienne De Re (Belgium) August 4, 1893; L. Atcherley (Great Britain) April 13, 1895; Harry Beaton (Great Britain) August 28, 1985; Harald Andersen-Arbin (Sweden) August 9, 1896; Issac Westergren (Sweden) September 11, 1898; Issac Westergren (Sweden) September 10, 1899; Frank Jarvis (United States) July 14, 1900; John Walter Tewksbury (United States) July 14, 1900; Harald Axel Fredrik Ljung (Sweden) September 23, 1900; John Walter Tewksbury (United States) October 6, 1900; Andre Passat (France) June 14, 1903; Louis Kuhn (Switzerland) June 14, 1903; Harald Gronfeldt (Denmark) July 5, 1903; Eric Frick (Sweden) August 9, 1903

Olympic Record: 10.8 Frank Jarvis (United States) July 14, 1900; John Walter Tewksbury (United States) July 14, 1900

1, Charles “Archie” Hahn (United States) 11.0

2, Nathaniel Cartmell (United States) 11.2

3, William Hogenson (United States) 11.2

4, Fay Moulton (United States) 11.4

5, Frederick Heckwolf (United States) N/T

6, Lawson Robertson (United States) N/T

1906 Athens (April 25)

World Record: 10.8 Luther Cary (United States July 4, 1891; Cecil Lee (Great Britain) September 25, 1892; Etienne De Re (Belgium) August 4, 1893; L. Atcherley (Great Britain) April 13, 1895; Harry Beaton (Great Britain) August 28, 1985; Harald Andersen-Arbin (Sweden) August 9, 1896; Issac Westergren (Sweden) September 11, 1898; Issac Westergren (Sweden) September 10, 1899; Frank Jarvis (United States) July 14, 1900; John Walter Tewksbury (United States) July 14, 1900; Harald Axel Fredrik Ljung (Sweden) September 23, 1900; John Walter Tewksbury (United States) October 6, 1900; Andre Passat (France) June 14, 1903; Louis Kuhn (Switzerland) June 14, 1903; Harald Gronfeldt (Denmark) July 5, 1903; Eric Frick (Sweden) August 9, 1903

Olympic Record: 10.8 Frank Jarvis (United States) July 14, 1900; John Walter Tewksbury (United States) July 14, 1900

1, Charles “Archie” Hahn (United States) 11.2

2, Fay Moulton (United States) 11.3 (estimated)

3, Nigel Barker (Australia) 11.3 (estimated)

4, William Eaton (United States)

5, Lawson Robertson (United States)

6, Knut Lindberg (Sweden)


1908 London (July 22)

World Record: 10.6 Knut Lindberg (Sweden) August 22, 1906

Olympic Record: 10.8 Frank Jarvis (United States) July 14, 1900; John Walter Tewksbury (United States) July 14, 1900; James Rector (United States) July 20, 1908; Reginald Walker (South Africa) July 21, 1908; James Rector (United States) July 21, 1908

1, Reginald Walker (South Africa) 10.8 =OR

2, James Rector (United States) 11.0 (estimated)

3, Robert Kerr (Canada) 11.0 (estimated)

4, Nathaniel Cartmell (United States) 11.2 (estimated)


1912 Stockholm (July 6)

World Record: 10.5 Emil Ketterer (Germany) July 9, 1911; Richard Rau (Germany) August 13, 1911; Richard Rau (Germany) May 12, 1912; Erwin Kern (Germany) May 26, 1912

Olympic Record: 10.6 Donald Lippincott (United States) July 6, 1912

1, Ralph Craig (United States) 10.8

2, Alvah Meyer (United States) 10.9

3, Donald Lippincott (United States) 10.9

4, George Patching (South Africa) 11.0

5, Frank Belote (United States) 11.00

DNS Howard Drew (United States)


1920 Antwerp (August 16)

World Record: 10.6 Donald Lippincott (United States) July 6, 1912

Olympic Record: 10.6 Donald Lippincott (United States) July 6, 1912

1, Charles Paddock (United States) 10.8

2, Morris Kirksey (United States) 10.9

3, Harry Edward (Great Britain) 10.9

4, Jackson Scholz (United States) 10.9

5, Emile Ali-Khan (France) 11.0

6, Loren Murchison (United States) 11.1


1924 Paris (July 7)

World Record: 10.4 Charles Paddock (United States) April 23, 1921

Olympic Record: 10.6 Donald Lippincott (United States) July 6, 1912

1, Harold Abrahams (Great Britain/England) 10.6 =OR

2, Jackson Scholz (United States) 10.8

3, Arthur Porritt (New Zealand) 10.9

4, Chester Bowman (United States) 10.9

5, Charles Paddock (United States) 10.9

6, Loren Murchison (United States) 11.0


1928 Amsterdam (July 30)

World Record: 10.4 Charles Paddock (United States) April 23, 1921

Olympic Record: 10.6 Donald Lippincott (United States) July 6, 1912; Harold Abrahams (Great Britain) July 7, 1924; Percy Williams (Canada) July 29, 1928 (2x)

1, Percy Williams (Canada) 10.8

2, John “Jack” London (Great Britain/England) 10.9

3, Georg Lammers (Germany) 10.9

4, Frank Wykoff (United States) 11.0

5, Wilfred Legg (South Africa) 11.0

6, Robert McAllister (United States) 11.0


1932 Los Angeles (August 1)

World Record: 10.3 Percy Williams (Canada) August 9, 1930; Arthur Jonath (Germany) July 5, 1932 (not ratified by IAAF)

Olympic Record: 10.4 Eddie Tolan (United States) July 31, 1932

1, Thomas “Eddie” Tolan (United States) 10.3 =WR, OR

2, Ralph Metcalfe (United States) 10.3 =WR, OR

3, Arthur Jonath (Germany) 10.4

4, George Simpson (United States) 10.5

5, Daniel Joubert (South Africa) 10.6

6, Takayoshi Yoshioka (Japan) 10.7


1936 Berlin (August 3)

World Record: 10.2 Jesse Owens (United States) June 20, 1936

Olympic Record: 10.3 Eddie Tolan (United States) August 1, 1932; Ralph Metcalfe (United States) August 1, 1932; Jesse Owens (United States) August 2, 1936

1, James “Jesse” Owens (United States) 10.3w

2, Ralph Metcalfe (United States) 10.4w

3, Martinus Osendarp (Netherlands) 10.5w

4, Frank Wykoff (United States) 10.6w

5, Erich Borchmeyer (Germany) 10.7w

6, Lennart Strandberg (Sweden) 10.9w


1948 London (July 31)

World Record: 10.2 Jesse Owens (United States) June 20, 1936; Harold Davis (United States) June 6, 1941; Lloyd LaBeach (Panama) May 15, 1948; Barney Ewell (United States) July 9, 1948

Olympic Record: 10.3 Eddie Tolan (United States) August 1, 1932; Ralph Metcalfe (United States) August 1, 1932; Jesse Owens (United States) August 2, 1936

1, William Harrison Dillard (United States) 10.3 =OR

2, Henry Norwood “Barney” Ewell (United States) 10.4

3, Lloyd Labeach (Panama) 10.4

4, Alastair McCorquodale (Great Britain/Scotland) 10.4

5, Melvin Patton (United States) 10.5

6, Emmanuel McDonald Bailey (Great Britain/Trinidad & Tobago) 10.6


1952 Helsinki (July 31)

World Record: 10.2 Jesse Owens (United States) June 20, 1936; Harold Davis (United States) June 6, 1941; Lloyd LaBeach (Panama) May 15, 1948; Barney Ewell (United States) July 9, 1948; Emmanuel McDonald Bailey (Great Britain) August 25, 1951

Olympic Record: 10.3 Eddie Tolan (United States) August 1, 1932; Ralph Metcalfe (United States) August 1, 1932; Jesse Owens (United States) August 2, 1936

1, Lindy Remigino (United States) 10.4

2, Herbert McKenley (Jamaica) 10.4

3, Emmanuel McDonald Bailey (Great Britain/Trinidad & Tobago) 10.4

4, Dean Smith (United States) 10.4

5, Vladimir Sukharyev (Soviet Union/Kyrgyzstan) 10.5

6, John Treloar (Australia) 10.5


1956 Melbourne (November 24)

World Record: 10.1 Willie Williams (United States) August 3, 1956; Ira Murchison (United States) August 4, 1956; Leamon King (United States) October 20, 1956; Leamon King (United States) October 27, 1956

Olympic Record: 10.3 Eddie Tolan (United States) August 1, 1932; Ralph Metcalfe (United States) August 1, 1932; Jesse Owens (United States) August 2, 1936; Bobby Joe Morrow (United States) November 23, 1956; Ira Murchison (United States) November 23, 1956; Bobby Joe Morrow (United States) November 24, 1956

1, Bobby Joe Morrow (United States) 10.5

2, Walter Thane Baker (United States) 10.5

3, Hector Hogan (Australia) 10.6

4, Ira Murchison (United States) 10.6

5, Manfred Germar (Germany/Federal Republic of Germany) 10.7

6, Michael Agostini (Trinidad & Tobago) 10.7

1960 Rome (September 1)

World Record: 10.0 Armin Hary (Federal Republic of Germany) June 21, 1960; Harry Jerome (Canada) July 15, 1960

Olympic Record: 10.2 Armin Hary (Federal Republic of Germany) August 31, 1960

1, Armin Hary (Germany/Federal Republic of Germany) 10.2 (10.32) =OR

2, David Sime (United States) 10.2 (10.35)

3, Peter Radford (Great Britain/England) 10.3 (10.42)

4, Enrique Figuerola Camue (Cuba) 10.3 (10.44)

5, Francis “Frank” Budd (United States) 10.3 (10.46)

6, Otis Ray Norton (United States) 10.4 (10.50)


1964 Tokyo (October 15)

World Record: 10.0 Armin Hary (Federal Republic of Germany) June 21, 1960; Harry Jerome (Canada) July 15, 1960; Horacio Esteves (Venezuela) August 15, 1964

Olympic Record: 10.2 Armin Hary (Federal Republic of Germany) August 31, 1960

1, Robert Lee “Bob” Hayes (United States) 10.0 (10.06) =WR; OR

2, Enrique Figuerola Camue (Cuba) 10.2 (10.25)

3, Harry Jerome (Canada) 10.2 (10.27)

4, Wieslaw Maniak (Poland) 10.4 (10.42)

5, Heinz Schumann (Germany/ Federal Republic of Germany) 10.4 (10.46)

6, Gaoussou Kone (Ivory Coast) 10.4 (10.47)

6, Melvin Pender (United States) 10.4 (10.47)

8, Thomas Robinson (Bahamas) 10.5 (10.57)


1968 Mexico City (October 14)

World Record: 9.9 Jim Hines (United States) June 20, 1968; Ronnie Ray Smith (United States) June 20, 1968; Charles Greene (United States) June 20, 1968

Olympic Record: 10.0 Robert Hayes (United States) October 14, 1964; Hermes Ramirez (Cuba) October 13, 1986; Charles Greene (United States) October 13, 1968; Jim Hines (United States) October 14, 1968

1, James Hines (United States) 9.9 (9.95) =WR, OR

2, Lennox Miller (Jamaica) 10.0 (10.04)

3, Charles Greene (United States) 10.0 (10.07)

4, Pablo Montes (Cuba) 10.1 (10.14)

5, Roger Bambuck (France) 10.1 (10.16)

6, Melvin Pender (United States) 10.1 (10.17)

7, Harry Jerome (Canada) 10.1 (10.20)

8, Jean-Louis Ravelomanatsoa (Madagascar) 10.2 (10.28)


1972 Munich (September 1)

World Record: 9.9 Jim Hines (United States) June 20, 1968; Ronnie Ray Smith (United States) June 20, 1968; Charles Greene (United States) June 20, 1968; Eddie Hart (United States) July 1, 1972; Rey Robinson (United States) July 1, 1972

Olympic Record: 9.9 (9.95) Jim Hines (United States) October 14, 1968

1, Valeriy Borzov (Soviet Union/Ukraine) 10.14

2, Robert Taylor (United States) 10.24

3, Lennox Miller (Jamaica) 10.33

4, Aleksandr Kornelyuk (Soviet Union/Azerbaijan) 10.36

5, Michael Fray (Jamaica) 10.40

6, Jobst Hirscht (Federal Republic of Germany) 10.40

7, Zenon Nowosz (Poland) 10.46

DNF Haseley Crawford (Trinidad & Tobago)


1976 Montreal (July 24)

World Record: 9.9 Jim Hines (United States) June 20, 1968; Ronnie Ray Smith (United States) June 20, 1968; Charles Greene (United States) June 20, 1968; Eddie Hart (United States) July 1, 1972; Rey Robinson (United States) July 1, 1972; Steve Williams (United States) June 1, 1974; Silvio Leonard (Cuba) June 5, 1975; Steve Williams (United States) June 16, 1975; Steve Williams (United States) August 22, 1975; Steve Williams (United States) March 27, 1976; Harvey Glance (United States) April 3, 1976; Harvey Glance (United States) May 1, 1976; Don Quarrie (Jamaica) May 22, 1976

Olympic Record: 9.9 (9.95) Jim Hines (United States) October 14, 1968

1, Haseley Crawford (Trinidad & Tobago) 10.06

2, Don Quarrie (Jamaica) 10.07

3, Valeriy Borzov (Soviet Union/Ukraine) 10.14

4, Harvey Glance (United States) 10.19

5, Guy Abrahams (Panama) 10.25

6, John Jones (United States) 10.27

7, Klaus-Dieter Kurrat (German Democratic Republic) 10.31

8, Petar Petrov (Bulgaria) 10.35


1980 Moscow (July 25)

World Record: 9.95 Jim Hines (United States) October 14, 1968

Olympic Record: 9.95 Jim Hines (United States) October 14, 1968

1, Allan Wells (Great Britain/Scotland) 10.25

2, Silvio Leonard (Cuba) 10.25

3, Petar Petrov (Bulgaria) 10.42

4, Aleksandr Aksinin (Soviet Union/Russia) 10.42

5, Osvaldo Canizares (Cuba) 10.43

6, Vladimir Muravyov (Soviet Union/Kazakhstan) 10.46

7, Marian Woronin (Poland) 10.46

8, Hermann Panzo (France) 10.49

1984 Los Angeles (August 4)

World Record: 9.93 Calvin Smith (United States) July 3, 1983

Olympic Record: 9.95 Jim Hines (United States) October 14, 1968

1, Frederick Carleton “Carl” Lewis (United States) 9.99

2, Sam Graddy (United States) 10.19

3, Ben Johnson (Canada) 10.22

4, Ron Brown (United States) 10.26

5, Michael McFarlane (Great Britain/England) 10.27

6, Raymond Stewart (Jamaica) 10.29

7, Donovan Reid (Great Britain/England) 10.33

8, Tony Sharpe (Canada) 10.35


1988 Seoul (September 24)

World Record: 9.83 Ben Johnson (Canada) August 30, 1987*

Olympic Record:
9.95 Jim Hines (United States) October 14, 1968

1, Carl Lewis (United States) 9.92 WR*, OR

2, Linford Christie (Great Britain) 9.97

3, Calvin Smith (United States) 9.99

4, Dennis Mitchell (United States) 10.04

5, Robson da Silva (Brazil) 10.11

6, Desai Williams (Canada) 10.11

7, Ray Stewart (Jamaica) 12.26

DQ, Ben Johnson (Canada) 9.79*

*The IAAF never considered Johnson’s winning time for world record ratification as he tested positive for the anabolic steroid stanozolol after the race. Subsequently admitting to steroid use between 1981 and 1988, the IAAF rescinded Johnson’s world record of 9.83 in September 1989. In 1990, the IAAF recognized Lewis’ winning performance as the world record.


1992 Barcelona (August 1)

World Record: 9.86 Carl Lewis (United States) August 25, 1991

Olympic Record: 9.92 Carl Lewis (United States) October 14, 1968

1, Linford Christie (Great Britain/England) 9.96

2, Frankie Fredericks (Namibia) 10.02

3, Dennis Mitchell (United States) 10.04

4, Bruny Surin (Canada) 10.09

5, Leroy Burrell (United States) 10.10

6, Olapade Adeniken, NGR, 10.12

7, Raymond Stewart (Jamaica) 10.22

8, Davidson Ezinwa (Nigeria) 10.26


1996 Atlanta (July 27)

World Record: 9.85 Leroy Burrell (United States) July 6, 1994

Olympic Record: 9.92 Carl Lewis (United States) October 14, 1968

1, Donovan Bailey (Canada) 9.84 WR, OR

2, Frank Fredericks (Namibia) 9.89

3, Ato Boldon (Trinidad & Tobago) 9.90

4, Dennis Mitchell (United States) 9.99

5, Michael Marsh (United States) 10.00

6, Davidson Ezinwa (Nigeria) 10.14

7, Michael Green (Jamaica) 10.16

DQ, Linford Christie (Great Britain/England)


2000 Sydney (September 23)

World Record: 9.79 Maurice Greene (United States) June 16, 1999

Olympic Record: 9.85 Donovan Bailey (Canada) July 27, 1996

1, Maurice Greene (United States) 9.87

2, Ato Boldon (Trinidad & Tobago) 9.99

3, Obadele Thompson (Barbados) 10.04

4, Dwain Chambers (Great Britain) 10.08

5, Jonathan Drummond (United States) 10.09

6, Darren Campbell (Great Britain/England) 10.13

7, Kim Collins (St. Kitts & Nevis) 10.17

DNF Abdul Aziz Zakari (Ghana) N/T


2004 Athens (August 22)

World Record: 9.78 Tim Montgomery (United States) September 14, 2002

Olympic Record: 9.85 Donovan Bailey (Canada) July 27, 1996

1, Justin Gatlin (United States) 9.85 =OR

2, Francis Obikwelu (Portugal) 9.86

3, Maurice Greene (United States) 9.87

4, Shawn Crawford (United States) 9.89

5, Asafa Powell (Jamaica) 9.94

6, Kim Collins (St. Kitts & Nevis) 10.00

7, Obadele Thompson (Barbados) 10.10

DNF Abdul Aziz Zakari (Ghana) N/T


2008 Beijing (August 16)

World Record: 9.72 Usain Bolt (Jamaica) May 31, 2008

Olympic Record: 9.85 Donovan Bailey (Canada) July 27, 1996

1, Usain Bolt (Jamaica) 9.69 WR, OR

2, Richard Thompson (Trinidad & Tobago) 9.89

3, Walter Dix (United States) 9.91

4, Churandy Martina (Netherlands Antilles) 9.93

5, Asafa Powell (Jamaica) 9.95

6, Michael Frater (Jamaica) 9.97

7, Marc Burns (Trinidad & Tobago) 10.01

8, Darvis “Doc” Patton (United States) 10.03


2012 London (August 5)

World Record: 9.58 Usain Bolt (Jamaica) August 16, 2009

Olympic Record: 9.69 Usain Bolt (Jamaica) August 16, 2008

1, Usain Bolt (Jamaica) 9.63 OR

2, Yohan Blake (Jamaica) 9.75

3, Justin Gatlin (United States) 9.79

4, Tyson Gay (United States) 9.80

5, Ryan Bailey (United States) 9.88

6, Churandy Martina (Netherlands) 9.94

7, Richard Thompson (Trinidad & Tobago) 9.98

8, Asafa Powell (Jamaica) 11.99


References:

Athletics Men’s 100 Metres, Sports Reference/Olympic Sports;

International Association of Athletic Federations, IAAF Statistics Handbook Daegu 2011, Part IV (IAAF Media & Public Relations Department, 2011);

International Association of Athletic Federations, IAAF Statistics Handbook, Games of the XXX Olympiad, London 2012, Part I (IAAF Media & Public Relations Department, 2012);

International Association of Athletic Federations, IAAF Statistics Handbook, Games of the XXX Olympiad, London 2012, Part II (IAAF Media & Public Relations Department, 2012);

Quercetani, R.L., A World History of Track and Field Athletics, 1864-1964 (London: Oxford University Press, 1964);

Wallechinsky, David, and Jaime Loucky, The Complete Book of the Olympics: 2012 Edition (London: Aurum Press, 2012).

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